https://wmaj.iaid.ir/ Water Management in Agriculture en daily 1 Fri, 20 Feb 2026 00:00:00 +0330 Fri, 20 Feb 2026 00:00:00 +0330 https://wmaj.iaid.ir/article_212620.html Drought stress leads to a negative effect on Guizotia abyssinica germination characteristics and can be reduced with bio-priming. This research was conducted to investigate the effect of different concentrations of three brown Algae’s on Niger seed germination characteristics at different drought stress levels; as a factorial scheme in a completely randomized design with three replications.The first factor includes control and seaweed extract, Ecklonia maxima (Basfoliar), Ascophyllum nodosum (Acadian) and Sargassum glaucescens (Alga600) each in 2 and 3 percent concentrations and the second factor included different levels of drought stress 0, -0.4 and -0.8 MPa. The effect of fertilizer on all traits except daily germination rate, the effect of drought stress on all traits except germination index, and the interaction effect on all traits were significant. Means comparison of the interaction effect showed that Alga600 2% at zero drought stress had the highest germination percentage (90%), germination rate (7.8 1/days) and mean daily germination (12.33 seed /day). Basfoliar 3% and -0.8 MPa drought stress produced the highest mean germination time (3.9 days), control algae treatment and -0.8 MPa drought stress had the highest daily germination rate (0.16), Acadian 3% and -0.8 MPa drought stress had the highest germination index (3.24 percent) and relative germination (211.12 percent) and Basfoliar algae 2% and zero drought stress level produced the highest coefficient of velocity of germination (35.81 percent). In general, it can be concluded that drought stress reduces and the algae application improves seeds germination and growth characteristics of Niger seed, especially under drought stress conditions. Therefore, the use of brown seaweed can be suggested as an effective solution to reduce the destructive effects of drought stress. https://wmaj.iaid.ir/article_212621.html It is very important to use modern irrigation methods for optimal water management and to prevent waste of rich soil materials. In this research, the effect of irrigation method (drip irrigation and surface irrigation) on some physical and chemical parameters of different soil layers of olive farm in Semnan Province Agricultural and Natural Resources Research Center, which was irrigated by surface irrigation method in the past years It was paid. In this way, two plots of land with an area of 2.5 hectares, which were adjacent to each other and were irrigated with the above-mentioned two methods, were selected to investigate the effect of this type of irrigation on some soil characteristics, including the physical and chemical characteristics of the soil. During the years 1393 and 1398, it should be investigated and evaluated in different soil layers. The results indicated that the irrigation method has a significant effect on EC, CEC, OC and TNV of different soil layers, but it has no effect on the pH value. The D98 system increased the soil salinity of the surface layer compared to the F93 and F98 treatments. The CEC value of the middle layer of D98 treatment is higher than the surface and bottom layer, but in F98 treatment, cations were transferred to the lower layers due to the high depth of water in each irrigation. The amount of TNV in soil layers was higher in D98 treatment than in F98 treatment. Irrigation method has a very significant effect on the value of Ɵm and ρb and a significant effect on the value of Ɵv. D98 treatment increased Ɵm and Ɵv and decreased ρb of soil layers due to low irrigation frequency. https://wmaj.iaid.ir/article_213386.html Considering that the subsurface drip irrigation system is developing in the orchards, it is necessary to investigate the salinity changes in the root-zone development area. Three pistachio orchards with subsurface drip irrigation systems were selected. Using the Hydrus 2D model, soil salinity changes were simulated and compared with the measured values. Soil salinity in near zoon of lateral is minimum and soil salinity wheat increasing distance of drippers has been increased. In the high salinity of irrigation water (8.5 dS/m) the pattern of soil salinity in surface layer increase and this increment is higher than salinity threshold value of pistachio trees. In low irrigation water salinities (2.5 and 3.5 dS/m), the salinity variations in the surface layer of the soil are not so great that causes salt accumulation. The cumulative results of the normalized root mean square error index of soil salinity changes(compared between measured and simulated values) by the model are 17% and indicate the efficiency and accuracy of the model in simulating soil salinity in subsurface drip irrigation. in order to determine the pipe installation depth and drippers in subsurface drip irrigation system, it is necessary to identify the soil salinity variations at the surface and depth, as well as the depth of root development, and it can produce the effectiveness of this system on irrigation efficiency, yield and finally, increase agricultural water productivity. https://wmaj.iaid.ir/article_214392.html Due to the limited water resources and the increasing water needs, the use of new water resource allocation has become more important. Studies on the construction of a dam on the Azaroud River in western Mazandaran were conducted to providing the needs of drinking and agriculture water. The aim of the present study is to manage the allocation of water resources of Azaroud River to providing the demand in the drinking and agricultural sectors. For this purpose, the Azaroud Dam and downstream areas were simulated with the MODSIM model, and then the model was run for current conditions and two different scenarios of future development plans. The proposed scenarios include the first scenario (construction of the dam and regulation of drinking, agricultural, and environmental water in all months of the year), the second scenario (existing conditions), and the third scenario (construction of a dam and regulation of drinking and agricultural water in all months of the year and environmental needs only in non-agricultural seasons). The parameters used in this model include the base flow of Azaroud River and rainfall as inputs, drinking, agricultural, and environmental water uses as outputs, and overflow and evaporation from reservoir surface as reservoir losses. The obtained results showed that in second scenario, the main shortage is related to the summer season, so in the long period, due to the coincidence of peak drinking water consumption with agriculture, the problem of drinking water supply will remain. In the third scenario, part of the river downstream dries up in the summer; Therefore, the most suitable option is the first scenario, which will provide at least 15 million cubic meters of drinking water by building the dam. The average annual shortage for drinking, agriculture and environment needs in this scenario will be 0.8, 7, and 0.31 percent, respectively. https://wmaj.iaid.ir/article_216815.html Given the importance of drip irrigation systems in improving water resource efficiency and reducing agricultural costs, low acceptance of this system by farmers has become a major challenge in water resources management. Previous research shows that factors such as lack of motivation, limited capabilities, and lack of appropriate opportunities play a significant role in the non-acceptance of this technology. Also, the reduction of educational and promotional programs by relevant institutions, including the Agricultural Jihad Department, has limited farmers' awareness of the benefits and how to use this system. Therefore, it seems necessary to examine existing barriers and provide appropriate solutions to overcome these challenges. In this study, the main objective is to examine farmers' barriers to using drip irrigation systems based on the MAO model (including three factors of motivation, ability, and opportunity). For this purpose, a qualitative and exploratory research design was designed and the necessary data was collected through interviews with 15 farmers and 5 people including the director and experts of the Agricultural Jihad Department of Rafsanjan city. Thematic analysis and MAXQDA software were used to analyze the data. The results of the study showed that, according to farmers, managers, and experts, the most important obstacle to the adoption of this system is the inability of farmers, which is related to factors such as social resources, cognitive resources, and financial resources. Also, despite the limited awareness and knowledge of farmers, the educational and promotional programs of the Agricultural Jihad Department have decreased in recent years. Finally, based on the opinions of farmers, managers, and experts, solutions from a social marketing perspective were presented to encourage farmers to use the drip irrigation system more. These solutions can play an effective role in increasing the adoption and use of this technology. https://wmaj.iaid.ir/article_216858.html Lack of water in Iran is one of the factors that threaten sustainable development in the coming years. Based on this, an attempt was made to draw a road map for managing water consumption in the agricultural system with emphasis on sustainable development with a mixed approach. Interviewees in the qualitative stage where the database method was used, 20people from management professors, managers of agricultural jihad and water sector activists in Ardabil province, who were selected by targeted sampling methods with chain referral method (snowball method). In the quantitative part, according to Morgan's table, 242people were studied based on stratified random sampling method. The obtained data were organized in the form of 73open codes, 37concepts, 8categories and 6classes based on a systematic approach after the process of open, central and selective coding and using MaxQDA. Based on of the output of the Smatr PLS, coordination between government organizations and people's organizations in water resources management; early warning system for water infrastructure; Irrigation time management; Implementation of justice in access to agricultural water for all farmers as well as changing the public's attitude towards water were identified as the most effective indicators in the model. Based on the results of the research, changing the cultivation pattern, managing the irrigation time, controlling the extraction level from underground water, using new technologies and also applying incentive and punishment policies are some of the suggestions that can be made in relation to the management of water consumption in the agricultural system. https://wmaj.iaid.ir/article_216938.html Organic fertilizers mitigate the impact of salinity on plant growth by enhancing nutrient uptake. This study investigated the effects of organic fertilizer on greenhouse cucumber growth under irrigation water salinity. We examined the impact of four salinity levels of irrigation water (0.4, 3, 6, and 9 dS/m) and five fertilizer treatments including no fertilizer, Zargreen fertigation at concentrations of 2, 4, and 6 ml/L, and foliar fertilizer at a concentration of 4 ml/L. The experiment was conducted as a factorial in a completely randomized design with three replications. The results demonstrated that the lowest plant growth occurred at 6 and 9 dS/m salinity levels. At a salinity level of 9 dS/m, applying 4 ml/L and 6 ml/L of fertigation increased stem length by 22% and 12.8%, respectively, while plant dry weight increased by 46.5% and 32.5%. Additionally, root dry weight increased by 34.7% and 30%, respectively. The use of 4 ml/L and 6 ml/L of fertigation also enhanced chlorophyll a level by 54.9% and 69% and carotenoid content by 36.4% and 41.7%. Moreover, there were reductions in proline levels by 20.8% and 20.4%, and total antioxidant capacity decreased by 21.5% and 25.2% at a salinity level of 9 dS/m. Based on the results of organic fertilizer effectively mitigated the negative impacts of salinity on growth, leading to improved plant development compared to the control group. https://wmaj.iaid.ir/article_217895.html This study aimed to evaluate the individual effects of varying irrigation levels and irrigation water salinity on the yield and water productivity of greenhouse cucumber during two growing periods: autumn-winter (A-W) and spring-summer (S-S) at the research greenhouses of the Faculty of Agriculture, University of Tehran. Experiment 1 included four irrigation levels (I1 to I4), corresponding to 120, 100, 80 and 60% of the crop's water requirements. During the A-W season, irrigation level I2 resulted in the highest yield, measuring 5.65 kg plant-1, while irrigation level I4 achieved the highest water productivity at 40 kg m-3. In the S-S season, irrigation level I1 demonstrated the best performance, yielding 11 kg plant-1 and a water productivity of 35.69 kg m-3. Experiment 2 examined four levels of irrigation water salinity (S1 to S4), corresponding to less than 3, 3, 6, and 9 dS m-1. Across both seasons, the lowest salinity level (S1) produced the highest yield and water productivity, with measurements of 10.59 kg plant-1 and 43.31 kg m-3 in the S-S season. The negative effects of salinity were more pronounced during the S-S season due to increased evapotranspiration and salt accumulation. The results indicated that in the A-W season, reducing irrigation while maintaining economic yield or utilizing water with lower salinity enhances water productivity. However, in the S-S season, meeting the full water requirements and using water with lower salinity are crucial for achieving optimal yield and water productivity. https://wmaj.iaid.ir/article_218247.html The Khuzestan Plain, located in the arid and semi-arid region of southwestern Iran, is one of the fertile regions that, despite the presence of five major rivers, is facing a water shortage crisis like most parts of the country. Unfortunately, many limitations have prevented the Khuzestan Plain from reaching its maximum potential in terms of production. Therefore, this article attempts to examine the concepts, challenges, tools, and important factors limiting water productivity in wheat fields in the south of Khuzestan Province (Ahvaz, Bandar Mahshahr, Khorramshahr, Azadegan Plain, Shadegan, Ramshir, Hoveyzeh, Bavi, Karun, and Hamidieh counties) using existing information, and ultimately provides suggestions for improving and managing the current situation.The results show that these factors (existing limitations) are divided into three groups: natural, managerial, and environmental. Hot and dry climate (temperature increase from 24.0 to 24.6 Ċ and 7.5% increase in potential evapotranspiration in Khuzestan Province), presence of heavy texture throughout the soil profile with low permeability and hydraulic conductivity, soil salinity with both primary and secondary origins, shallow water table, absence of natural drainage, improper land leveling, excessive use of chemical fertilizers, incorrect irrigation in terms of distance and depth, and failure to select the appropriate irrigation method due to the presence of multiple environmental stresses and the decrease in average rainfall from 352.1 to 294.6 mm/ year in Khuzestan Province over the last 10 years, water loss in the field in the form of evaporation (with an average water use efficiency of 64% in the studied counties), runoff and deep losses, and a set of social, cultural, and security factors are important limitations to improving water productivity and production in the southern Khuzestan Plain https://wmaj.iaid.ir/article_219525.html In order to Evaluation of the precise irrigation management and potassium silicate application affects on the quantitative and qualitative yield of purslane, a factorial experiment was carried out based on a completely randomized design (CRD) with four replications in the greenhouse of Sari Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources University (SANRU), Mazandaran, Iran. The experimental treatments included drought stress at six levels of low (DS1: 12hr (125ml), DS2: 24hr (250ml)), moderate (DS3: 48hr (250ml), DS4: 72hr (500ml)) and severe (DS5: 72hr (250ml), DS6: 48hr (125ml)) stress and potassium silicate at three levels (S0: Control, S1: 1 mM, S2: 2 mM). Based on the findings, with increasing drought stress intensity, plant height, fresh and dry weight of roots and aerial parts decreased significantly. However, this decrease was moderated in treatments S1 and S2. The highest water productivity was observed in DS1 by 71.9, and the lowest was observed in DS5 and DS6 by 70.2 and 69.9, respectively. Also, in S1 and S2, there was a significant superiority over the control treatment by 0.030 and 0.031, respectively. The highest antioxidant activity was observed in moderate and severe stress treatments, while the lowest was in DS2 and DS1 treatments. Also, in S1 and S2 treatments, the antioxidant activity, phenolic content, and flavonoid content of the fruit were higher compared to the control treatment (S0). https://wmaj.iaid.ir/article_221490.html Beans are important food sources in many parts of the world due to their high protein content. Considering Iran's climatic conditions, the use of management approaches such as the use of biofertilizers and deficit irrigation is important. This experiment was conducted to investigate the effect of water deficit along with biofertilizers on growth physiological indices, yield components, grain and biological yield, and harvest index of bean cultivars as a split factorial scheme in a randomized complete block design with 3 replications at the Shahrekord University research farm in 2024. Experimental treatments included irrigation regime with three levels (normal (100 percent) and deficit irrigation including (80 and 60 percent of beans' water requirement)) as main factor and the sub factor was factorial of biological fertilizer with four levels {Control (C), Bacteria Rhizobium Leguminosarum, Azosprilium brasilese and fungus Arbuscular Mycorrhizal} and the common bean cultivars including red bean and chiti bean). Use of biofertilizers increased leaf area index (LAI) under normal irrigation conditions and moderate stress (80% of water requirement). The use of mycorrhiza and rhizobium under moderate deficit conditions (80% of water requirement) resulted in a 5% increase in net assimilation rate (NAR) compared to control. All three biofertilizers resulted in a significant increase in CGR under normal irrigation and moderate stress. Severe stress (60% of water requirement) resulted in a 55% reduction in relative growth rate (RGR) compared to normal irrigation. Rhizobium and mycorrhiza biofertilizers increased the number of seeds per pod (12.5 and 13.2 percent) and the weight of one hundred seeds (13.2 and 13.5 percent) compared to the control treatment and these microorganisms caused increasing grain yield under both normal and moderate deficit irrigation. In general, the use of biofertilizers can improve growth traits and grain yield in beans by reducing the effects of drought stress https://wmaj.iaid.ir/article_221646.html Uncertainty analysis in crop models such as AquaCrop is critical given the importance of climatic data in simulating agricultural crop performance. This study aims to compare two methods, GLUE and Bootstrap, for assessing the uncertainty of climatic datasets. Climatic data from CPC Global, CRU TS, ERA5, ERA-Interim, and MERRA-2 spanning 1989 to 2019 were utilized to model wheat and maize performance. The evaluations revealed that GLUE produced wider uncertainty bands and higher p-factor and d-factor values compared to Bootstrap. Specifically, the lowest uncertainty for maize biomass was observed in the CPC Global dataset, with p-factor and d-factor values of 96.67% and 3.3, respectively, whereas the highest uncertainty was recorded for the MERRA-2 dataset, with values of 63.33% and 5.98. Similarly, in the Bootstrap method, the CPC Global dataset demonstrated superior performance with narrower uncertainty bands across most stations. The results highlighted that ERA5 and CPC Global are more reliable for crop modeling due to their ability to provide more accurate data and reduce uncertainty in biomass, actual evapotranspiration, irrigation, and crop yield. Conversely, MERRA-2 exhibited the highest uncertainty across all variables and stations. Overall, GLUE is more suitable for comprehensive analyses, whereas Bootstrap, owing to its simplicity and narrower uncertainty bands, is better suited for statistical studies with limited data. These results underscore the importance of selecting high-quality climatic datasets and appropriate analytical methods to enhance the accuracy of agricultural model predictions. https://wmaj.iaid.ir/article_225376.html In water scarcity conditions for fodder production, selection of suitable corn hybrids along with irrigation management is very important to improve water productivity. Accordingly, the present study was conducted as a split strip plot experiment in a randomized complete block design with three replications in the experimental field of Ahvaz Research Station in the 2018-2019 crop year. The main factor was irrigation interval at three levels of two, three and four days and the secondary factor was corn hybrids 704, 611 and Mobin.The results showed that the four-day cycle caused a 32.4% and 38.7% decrease in shoot and ear yield compared to the two- and three-day cycles, respectively. Comparing the mean interaction of irrigation cycle and hybrid treatments, it was found that the highest water productivity of 1.27 kg/m3 was obtained in hybrid 704 with a three-day cycle. In examining the effect of irrigation levels, due to the improvement of water productivity in the three-day cycle by 15% and 63%, respectively, compared to the two- and four-day cycles, this irrigation cycle is recommended. Also, the 704 and Mobin hybrids with a higher ear yield of approximately 16% compared to the single-cross 611 are recommended and promoted. Soil salinity monitoring showed that two and three-day irrigation periods reduced salinity in all soil profiles by an average of 46% and 37% compared to before planting. However, in the four-day period, although the salinity in the surface soil layer decreased by 27%, due to the accumulation of salts in the lower soil layers, the salinity increased by 15% in the 25-50 cm layer and 20% for the 50-75 cm layer. The results of this study indicate that to combat salt accumulation, intermittent leaching is required during the season and the removal of salts from the soil by underground drains. https://wmaj.iaid.ir/article_225457.html The lack of water resources and the increase in air temperature and solar radiation, especially in the summer, are important limitations for the production of many agricultural products, including citrus fruits in Iran. In order to plan and manage water better in the agricultural, one must first have sufficient knowledge of the current situation in the region. Since citrus is one of the major and essential plants in the south of Kerman, water management is very important in this area. The present study aimed to measure the volume of irrigation water, water productivity, and applied water (irrigation + effective rainfall) in orange orchards in southern Kerman province (Jiroft and Anbarabad). Average volume of applied water for orange in the southern region of Kerman provincewas 15460 m3/h. The range of variations in irrigation water in southern Kerman is large, ranging from 9000 m3/h in Jiroft to 22464 m3/h in Anbarabad. The range of yield variations in selected orange orchards in the southern Kerman region is between 11 and 60 tons per hectare. The weighted average yield in selected orange orchards in southern Kerman was 27 ton/h. The range of changes in water productivity is high and ranges from 0.5 to 3.84 kg/m3. The range of variations in water productivity is high, between 0.5 and 3.6 kg/m3. The average water productivity in Jiroft province was 2.26 kg/m3 and in Anbarabad province was 1.26 kg/m3. Knowing the values of water management indicators, including the volume of irrigation water and the water productivity of the important horticultural and agricultural crops of the country, plays an important role in the planning related to the supply, allocation and consumption of water is fundamental in different sectors, including agricultur. https://wmaj.iaid.ir/article_226005.html The dispersion, irregularity, and small size of paddy fields in Guilan Province cause the lack of optimal use of production resources, which, increases production costs and prevents maximum production. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of implementing the plan to equip and modernize paddy fields (plan) in Guilan Province, which can lead to rice farmers' satisfaction in achieving sustainable agriculture. This study was conducted in 2024 in Guilan Province, Rasht County, Sangar District, and is a causal and post-event research type, and in terms of its purpose of application and in terms of the method of data collection, it is considered a descriptive-survey research. The data collection tools were library studies and questionnaires. The statistical population were the farmers of the villages of Joboneh, Vishkanak, Sheikh Ali Bast, and Qaleh Dej in Sangar District, Rasht. Using the Cochran formula, the sample size was estimated at 150 farmers. To determine the validity of the questionnaire, the opinions of 15 experts were used. The reliability of the questionnaire was obtained according to the Cronbach's alpha coefficient of 0.8, which indicates the good validity of the questionnaire. After collecting the questionnaires, the information contained in them was coded and given to the SPSS25 software for analysis. The results showed that all indicators had factor loading values higher than 0.5 and were significant. The results showed the satisfaction of farmers with the implementation of the plan in the water, infrastructure and social management dimensions. The results of the logistic regression test showed that the dependent variable of the study, was positively affected by the dimensions of water consumption management with a weight of 0.93, infrastructure and technology development with a weight of 1.86, production process improvement with a weight of 2.47, and social achievements with a weight of 0.78. https://wmaj.iaid.ir/article_228714.html Surface water quality is a key factor in the optimal allocation of river water resources for agricultural use. Water quality indices are widely applied in determining water suitability, particularly in agriculture. However, due to their deterministic nature, these indices often face challenges in accurately monitoring water quality. Therefore, this study compares the changes in water quality of four rivers Zarrin Gol, Ramian, Galikesh, and Chel-Chai in the Gorganrud watershed using the IRWQIsc index through both fuzzy and non-fuzzy methods. To achieve this, water samples were collected biweekly from November 2022 to May 2023, and parameters including pH, EC, DO, NO₃⁻, NH₄⁺, PO₄, and TH were measured according to APHA standards. After normalizing the values using IRWQIsc curves, a fuzzy model based on the Sugeno inference system with trapezoidal membership functions and twenty 'if–then' rules was implemented in Python to analyze data uncertainty and dispersion more effectively. The results showed that the average output values across stations using the fuzzy method were 80.58 with a standard deviation of 5.38 and a coefficient of variation of 0.0667, whereas the non-fuzzy method yielded an overall average of 77.31, a standard deviation of 8.57, and a coefficient of variation of 0.1107. Thus, the fuzzy model provided higher accuracy and consistency. Furthermore, in 75.5% of the samples, both methods yielded similar quality classifications, while in the remaining 24.5%, the fuzzy model demonstrated greater sensitivity in identifying boundary and critical conditions. Additionally, water quality in more than half of the stations was classified as "good" to "very good." Consequently, considering its ability to reduce uncertainty and its higher sensitivity in identifying marginal water quality zones, the fuzzy logic approach can serve as an effective decision-making tool for water resource managers in related planning activities. https://wmaj.iaid.ir/article_228959.html This study aimed to investigate the factors affecting the sustainable management of agricultural water resources by the users of the Tajan River in Sari Township using a descriptive-correlational method. The statistical population of this study is the agricultural users of the Tajan River in Sari Township. The number of agricultural users in this Township is 42,850 people and the area of agricultural land covered by the Tajan irrigation network is 55,300 hectares. To determine the sample size, the Mendenhall et al. (1970) formula was used, which estimated the sample size to be 247 people, and to increase the accuracy of the study, 260 questionnaires were completed. Multi-stage stratified random sampling method was used to select the study sample. The data collection instrument was a questionnaire, its validity was confirmed by agricultural extension and education professors of Sari Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources University and experts from the Mazandaran Regional Water Company, and Cronbach's alpha coefficients (0.75 to 0.84) indicated appropriate reliability of the research scales. Based on the results, the sustainable water resources management behavior index of farmers in three dimensions (agronomic, technical-technological, and participatory-social), was higher than average (2.9 out of 4). The results of the multiple regression test revealed that the three variables: educational services received by farmers, social capital, and environmental attitude had the highest impact on the sustainable water resources management behavior of farmers, and in total, these three variables explained 48.6 percent of the changes in the dependent variable. Considering the importance of educational services received by farmers for sustainable water management, more attention should be paid to the agricultural extension and education department in the Agricultural Jahad Organization, which is directly responsible for providing education to farmers, and the importance of work in this field should be understood https://wmaj.iaid.ir/article_230490.html Iran’s water crisis, driven by agriculture as its largest consumer, necessitates a fundamental shift towards smart water demand management. Despite valuable regional studies, the absence of a comprehensive national-scale analysis considering the country’s vast agro-climatic heterogeneity is a key knowledge gap. This research aims to fill this gap by conducting a spatio-temporal assessment of the green and blue water footprint of maize in 23 key agricultural regions of Iran. Using the process-based simulation model SSM-iCrop2, we simulated maize growth, yield, and water balance across 2760 scenarios designed based on a combination of 23 regions, 30-year climate data, and four maturity groups (cultivars). The results revealed a strong hydro-climatic gradient across Iran, ranging from absolute dependence on irrigation in the hot and arid south (blue water footprint more than 700 m³/ton) to a significant 37% green water share in the cool and semi-arid north. The key finding was that this climatic pattern can be disrupted by management decisions; selecting an unsuitable cultivar in Sarpol-e Zahab led to a 54% increase in the blue water footprint compared to the Karaj region (with a similar climate). These findings demonstrate the inefficacy of ‘one-size-fits-all’ policies in Iranian agricultural water management. Optimizing water use therefore requires a transition towards precise, regional approaches, for which we propose the development of climate-smart cultivation atlases as a key strategic tool to enhance water productivity. https://wmaj.iaid.ir/article_231141.html In order to identify water stress tolerant genotypes, screen water stress tolerance and sensitivity indices, and determine the best indices, the present study was conducted on 19 potato genotypes in split plots and in a completely randomized basic design including two levels of full irrigation and deficit irrigation (50% of the water given in full irrigation) and three replications in 2023 in the greenhouse of Pertikan Bazr Gostar Company (a producer of different classes of potato seeds) located in Minadasht city, Isfahan province, Iran. Based on the number of commercial tubers produced in two conditions of full irrigation and deficit irrigation, water stress tolerance and sensitivity indices including SSI, SI, HM, TOL, MP, YSI, GMP, STI, MRP, YI, REI, and SRI were calculated. The results of the mean comparison showed that the highest number of commercial tubers produced under full irrigation conditions was related to the AD50 genotype and under deficit irrigation conditions was related to the AD15 genotype. The results of the correlation test showed that the MRP index had the highest correlation with yield under both full irrigation and deficit irrigation conditions and was the most appropriate index for screening and finding superior genotypes. According to the various methods used in the present study, such as three-dimensional diagram and cluster analysis, the three genotypes AD15, AD50, and AD2 were introduced as superior genotypes for achieving high yield under deficit conditions. The use of simple and reliable methods to identify superior genotypes under water stress conditions has appropriate efficiency in breeding programs for adaptation to deficit conditions due to its intensification because of climate change. https://wmaj.iaid.ir/article_231783.html Any reduction in water use in the agricultural sector can significantly help decrease the country's overall water consumption. In this study, the volume of irrigation water, yield, and water productivity of alfalfa under farmers' management conditions were measured across 27 selected farms under surface and sprinkler irrigation systems, different water sources, soil types, irrigation water salinities, and alfalfa cultivars in Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari province during the 2018-2019 crop year. By determining the flow rate, irrigation duration, and applied water amount, as well as other farm characteristics, based on the research method, the data were recorded. The differences in the average volume of irrigation water, yield, irrigation water productivity, and applied water productivity among the selected counties were not significant at the 5% probability level. The average volume of irrigation water in the counties was 9,371 and 9,092, respectively, with a provincial average of 9,226 cubic meters per hectare. Irrigation water productivity in selected farms in the province ranged from 0.46 to 2.97, with a provincial average of 1.53 kg/m³. The average applied water productivity was 1.50 kg/m³. The average volume of irrigation water for alfalfa fields in the study areas was 10,471 and 8,494 m3/ha for surface and sprinkler irrigation systems, respectively, and their difference is significant at the 5% probability level. By changing the irrigation method from surface to sprinkler, the volume of irrigation water will decrease by about 20%, and the productivity of irrigation water for alfalfa fields will increase by 44% (from 1.20 to 1.73 kg/m3). According to the results of this study, to reduce the volume of irrigation water and improve water efficiency in alfalfa production, appropriate irrigation planning and the use of sprinkler irrigation methods are recommended, taking into account the stability of salts in the soil and observing the technical conditions of the system. https://wmaj.iaid.ir/article_232968.html Determining the water requirement of plants is a necessary condition for implementing systematic irrigation and improving water productivity in the agricultural sector, which is needed considering the country's water resources and their intensification due to mismanagement and climate change. The aim of the study was to determine the water requirement and plant coefficients of three mini-tuber potato varieties in greenhouse conditions in Minadasht County, Isfahan Province. For this purpose, three potato varieties, Sante, Agria, and Desire, were cultivated in three replicates in a microlysimeter with the aim of producing tubers along with grass, and by maintaining the daily health of the cultivation bed at the field capacity, the water requirement was determined during the growing season. Also, the plant coefficient of the three mini-tuber potato varieties was calculated at different growth stages including growth, development, middle, and end. The results showed that the water requirement of mini-tuber potato varieties for the three studied varieties was in the range of 2.69 to 0.77 mm during the growth period. The average plant coefficient for the three studied cultivars in the four growth periods of initial, development, intermediate and final were 0.49, 0.8, 1.14 and 0.87, respectively. Considering that Isfahan province has many parts of the country with severe water resources and in greenhouses water and nutrients are consumed simultaneously, therefore, it is necessary to increase the productivity of water and other resources at different stages of plant growth with quality and quantity of the product. https://wmaj.iaid.ir/article_233511.html The integrated management of surface and groundwater resources and the optimization of water allocation to achieve the optimal level of planting pattern crops is a necessity that was carried out in the Chamchamal plain of Kermanshah by using the linear programming model. Water demand and net production of products in the existing situation were used as coefficients of the objective function and definition of constraint functions, and the optimization of the existing and proposed situation was carried out in terms of the integrated management of surface and groundwater resources in areas with and without networks. The results showed that there is no match between the correct cultivation pattern and available water, and it indicates the weakness of network management. Optimization of the current situation has led to a reduction in the cultivation areas of wheat, sunflower, and tomato, and an increase in the cultivation of canola, potato, and faba bean, as well as the elimination of barley, sugar beet, and maize cultivation. Consequently, agricultural profitability has increased by 34.33% in network areas and 33.35% in areas without network. This profit increase in the suggested optimal conditions was 45.9 and 35.23 percent. The sensitivity analysis showed that in the areas covered by the network, both in the existing and proposed conditions, the decrease in profit was the most sensitive to the decrease in the area under wheat cultivation, and the increase in profit was the most sensitive to the increase in the area of potato cultivation and then wheat. https://wmaj.iaid.ir/article_234388.html One of the cultivation methods in greenhouses is soilless cultivation. Soilless cultivation includes methods in which plants are grown in an environment other than soil and can be open or closed based on the use of nutrient solution status. Recently, a new cultivation method in a multilayered bed has been proposed to solve the problems of conventional cultivation beds in soilless cultivation of crops that require a bed for root maintenance. This system is a modified nutrient film technique combined with soilless cultivation in grow bags. This cultivation method is mainly characterized by a partial growing media combined with a nutrient solution circulation system. In this article, while describing the technical characteristics of the new growing media, which can be used in greenhouses in both fixed and mobile layers (to increase the cultivation density per unit area), this combined method is compared with two methods: nutrient film technique and cultivation in grow bags. Also, the practical results of the multi-year implementation of this method by the importing company in Varamin city, Tehran Province, are presented, and finally, conclusions and practical suggestions for using this modern technology to increase the efficiency of input consumption and increase production efficiency are made. https://wmaj.iaid.ir/article_235222.html This project was conducted over two years to enhance food security and increase productivity through various irrigation methods, including drip, sprinkler, and Furrow irrigation, along with two cultivation techniques: transplanting and direct seeding. It focused on forage corn planted on June 15 and July 15 at the Chahartakhte research station, located in a semi-arid, cold climate. Each experiment was arranged as a split-plot within a randomized complete block design with three replications. Transplants were planted simultaneously with seed crops. At the end of each crop cycle, traits such as irrigation water use and both wet and dry forage yields were measured. Results showed no significant differences in forage yields among the three irrigation systems. The average water productivity for drip irrigation was 2.76 kg/m³, higher than that of the surface and sprinkler systems. The highest water productivity, 3.15 kg/m³, was observed with drip irrigation and seedling cultivation on the first planting date. On the second planting date, 1070 m³/ha less water was used compared to the first. Water productivity on the first planting date was 8.6% higher than on the second, and seedling cultivation was 9.4% more water productivity than seed cultivation. To optimize water use and increase water productivity, adopting a drip irrigation system, planting on July 15, and using seedling cultivation are effective strategies for reducing water consumption and producing forage corn in semi-arid, cold regions.d cultivation. To optimize water use and boost water productivity, adopting a drip irrigation system, planting on July 15, and using seedling cultivation are effective strategies for reducing water consumption and producing forage corn in semi-arid, cold regions. https://wmaj.iaid.ir/article_235620.html To develop high-yielding bread wheat cultivars with improved water productivity, a two-year field experiment (2021-2023) was conducted using a randomized complete block design. The experimental treatments consisted of five irrigation levels (25%, 50%, 75%, 100%, and 125% of Irrigation requirement) as the horizontal factor, and five wheat cultivars (Behrang, Shabrang, Aran, Taban, and Mahan) as the vertical factor, with three replications.Crop evapotranspiration was calculated using the evaporation pan method, and irrigation treatments were applied to use a drip irrigation system. In the homogeneity test (Bartlet) of the annual variance error and the combined analysis of variance revealed a significant year effect, attributable to variations in annual climatic conditions, particularly the amount and distribution of effective rainfall. On average, maximum grain yield was producted under full irrigation, while the highest water productivity was observed under deficit irrigation. Under full irrigation, the maximum variation in grain yield among cultivars was 4% and 6% in two different years, respectively. Using the two-year water consumption-yield curve, the grain produced per millimeter of water consumed by the cultivars ranged from 19.56 to 21.30 kg per hectare. By selecting appropriate cultivars and implementing deficit irrigation management, the water productivity and crop water productivity increased by 42% and 76%, respectively. Based on the grain yield production curve - annual and two-year average relative water supply and water requirements, the cultivars were classified into two groups and practical recommendations were provided for each group. https://wmaj.iaid.ir/article_236817.html Water productivity (WP) is one of the key indicators of optimal irrigation water utilization and serves as a reliable and scientific measure for evaluating the efficient use of water in agricultural production. In the present study, four indexes including IWMI1, IWMI4, ITRC2, and ITRC6—were employed to assess the status of agricultural water productivity across 33 farms located in the counties of Sabzevar, Davarzan, Joghatai, Firouzeh, and Neyshabur for wheat, barley, and forage maize crops. The results indicated that the average water productivity for wheat, barley, and forage maize under low-pressure irrigation systems was 0.65, 0.65, and 2.4 kg/m³, respectively, while under pressurized irrigation systems, it was 1.26, 0.57, and 7.61 kg/m³, respectively. Therefore, it can be concluded that pressurized irrigation systems played a significant role in improving water productivity compared to low-pressure systems. The highest water productivity was observed for forage maize in Neyshabur County (8.97 kg/m³) and Firouzeh County (7.85 kg/m³). Among cereal crops, Joghatai County showed the best performance in wheat cultivation with a water productivity of 1.22 kg/m³, and Neyshabur County achieved the highest productivity in barley cultivation with 0.99 kg/m³. The average values of the evaluation indices IWMI1, IWMI4, ITRC2, and ITRC6 for wheat across the studied counties were 4718 kg/ha, 0.88 kg/m³, 1.84, and 1.53, respectively. Based on the findings of this study, it is recommended that in the cropping pattern of the studied counties, Joghatai and Neyshabur should be prioritized for the cultivation of wheat and barley, respectively, while Firouzeh County should be prioritized for the cultivation of forage maize. https://wmaj.iaid.ir/article_238487.html The agricultural sector in Iran is the largest consumer of the country's water resources, accounting for more than 93% of total water withdrawals. Delegation and transfer of managerial responsibilities in the operation and maintenance of irrigation and drainage networks from the government to water users—particularly in the form of Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM) and Irrigation Management Transfer (IMT)—are modern approaches that have been pursued in many countries over recent decades to enhance efficiency and increase the sustainability of irrigation systems. The present study aims to identify the challenges and capacities of irrigation management transfer in five active irrigation networks of Kurdistan Province, including the Qeshlaq (Sanandaj), Garan (Marivan), Ziviyeh (Kamyaran), Legzi (Saqqez), and Sural (Dehgolan) networks. Research data were collected through reviewing technical and managerial documents, field observations, interviews with managers and experts, and administering a three-part questionnaire (specialized, specific, and general questions) among water users and operational staff of the networks. The results indicate that although water users in the province show a considerable willingness to participate in network management, numerous institutional, social, managerial, and technical challenges hinder the full realization of the management transfer program. The main obstacles include ambiguity in land ownership, heterogeneity of local structures, weak culture of participation, insufficient capacity building and training, deteriorated infrastructure, institutional inconsistencies, financial constraints, and limited mutual trust between the government and water users. Nevertheless, the findings suggest that establishing transparent institutional mechanisms, strengthening the technical and social capacity of water users, rehabilitating and improving networks, creating economic and managerial incentives, and empowering water user associations can facilitate the successful implementation of IMT in these five networks. The results of this study can be used in formulating participatory management policies and improving water-use efficiency in the irrigation networks of Kurdistan Province. https://wmaj.iaid.ir/article_239651.html Accurate and efficient irrigation scheduling of forage maize plays a crucial role in sustainable water resource management, enhancing food security, and achieving self-sufficiency in the production of strategic crops. In this study, an innovative approach for optimizing irrigation scheduling was developed based on the simultaneous integration of weather forecasts with the AquaCrop model. Applying this approach throughout the growing season allowed optimization of irrigation at different phenological stages, ensuring that the minimum required irrigation depth was applied at each event without inducing water stress, thereby maximizing crop water productivity. Field experiments were conducted in summer 2024 on forage maize (SC704) under surface drip irrigation, using three irrigation scheduling treatments: 1) based on evapotranspiration calculations and the FAO-56 method with real-time meteorological data, 2) combining three-day weather forecast data with the AquaCrop model, and 3) following the conventional farmer practice in the region, each with three replications. The aim was to compare and evaluate the efficiency of the combined AquaCrop and weather forecast approach against traditional farmer practices and ET-based scheduling methods. Results showed that the treatment using the combined approach (treatment 2) saved 110 mm of irrigation water (equivalent to a 19% reduction in irrigation depth) compared to treatment 1. Moreover, it outperformed both ET-based (treatment 1) and conventional farmer practices (treatment 3) in producing fresh and dry biomass, achieving the highest water productivity of 14.48 and 4.88 kg m⁻³ for fresh and dry biomass, respectively. Overall, the findings highlight the high potential of this approach for developing smart irrigation systems, automating irrigation operations, and improving water management scheduling at the field scale. https://wmaj.iaid.ir/article_242761.html One of the challenges in drip irrigation systems is the uniformity of water distribution and the clogging of emitters. In this study, the effect of the SFI screen filter on the coefficient of flow variation, distribution uniformity, and the percentage of clogging of drip tapes was investigated. The treatments included drip tape spacing at two levels of 75 cm (A1) and 1.5 m (A2), and drip tapes with two emitter discharge rates of Q1 = 1.5 L h⁻¹ and Q2 = 2.5 L h⁻¹. Emitter discharge was measured by collecting water over a 5-minute period. Based on the discharge measurements, the coefficient of flow variation, distribution uniformity, and clogging percentage were calculated over 15 irrigation events. The results showed that, in treatments A1Q1, A2Q1, A1Q2, and A2Q2, the average clogging percentage increased by 34.82%, 13.56%, 4.89%, and 20.40%, respectively, from the first to the seventh irrigation event. From the seventh irrigation onward, following the activation of the SFI filtration system, the clogging percentage exhibited a stable trend up to the fifteenth irrigation. Furthermore, despite the presence of SFI filtration, the distribution uniformity of the different treatments became more similar to each other. https://wmaj.iaid.ir/article_243256.html This one-year project, conducted in potato-growing areas of Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari province, assessed the efficiency and productivity of direct, indirect, renewable, and non-renewable energy use in potato production under various irrigation systems and area sizes. A questionnaire was completed in several stages while field measurements were taken, and the data were converted into energy consumption per unit area using equivalence equations. Using the energy consumed and produced of inputs (irrigation water, electricity, machinery, human power, seeds consumed, chemical and animal fertilizers, pesticides, crop yield) for the production of potato crops under furrow, sprinkler, and tape irrigation systems, evaluation indices were calculated and analyzed. The average energy consumption and production per unit area were 154,537 and 160,424 megajoules per hectare, respectively, for the furrow irrigation systems (95,103 and 119,118), sprinkler irrigation (160,971 and 164,464), and tape irrigation (83,228 and 117,000). The average energy consumption efficiency was calculated to be 1.087, estimated at 1.18, 1.001, and 1.4 for the furrow irrigation, sprinkler irrigation, and tape irrigation systems, respectively. And in the mentioned irrigation systems, only 2.29, 2.63, and 2.62 kilograms of potato crop were produced for each megajoule of non-renewable energy consumed. https://wmaj.iaid.ir/article_246174.html This study aimed to analyze the growth limit of the water resource system in the Kor-Sivand Basin by integrating a water balance model with the pressure and support framework. Population growth, unsustainable agricultural development, inefficient management, and climate change intensified the water crisis and made it necessary to assess the hydrological balance alongside economic, social, and environmental dimensions. Due to the lack of official data after 2011, a water balance model based on regression relationships was developed for the agricultural, industrial, and service sectors. Pressure and support indicators were calculated, and the system's growth limit was derived from the ratio of the mean standardized support indicators to the mean pressure indicators. Based on the findings, the basin's carrying capacity index decreased from 1.05 in 2001 to 0.95 in 2016, crossing the equilibrium threshold, while the relative water stress index increased by 1.58 units. This trend indicated that the basin had entered a phase of gradual degradation and was approaching a collapse threshold. The dynamic balance of water consumption between agricultural and ecological sectors highlighted the necessity of integrated water management. In the Kor-Sivand Basin, merely changing the development pattern was not sufficient; local solutions based on accurately identifying the system's growth limit and reducing pressures must be developed and implemented. https://wmaj.iaid.ir/article_247128.html Floods are among the most destructive natural disasters, causing significant economic and human losses in Iran annually. Accurate modeling of this phenomenon has always faced challenges due to the nonlinear and complex nature of the rainfall-runoff process. In this review study, nearly 70 reputable scientific papers, including approximately 38 studies with individual models and 32 studies with hybrid models conducted between 2003 and 2025 in various watersheds across Iran, have been reviewed and analyzed. The main objective is to compare the performance of individual and hybrid models in flood and runoff simulation and to identify successful approaches in Iran. The findings indicate that individual models such as HEC-HMS, SWAT, SWMM, ANN, ANFIS, and WRF, despite their simplicity, face serious weaknesses in estimating peak discharges and extreme flood events, while hybrid models have performed better in over 90% of cases, with average accuracy improvement ranging from 15 to 30%. Among the hybrid approaches, three main categories including wavelet-based models (Wavelet-ANFIS, WSVR), metaheuristic optimization models (ANFIS-ICA, SVR-HHO), and physical-machine learning hybrid models (HEC-HMS+LSTM, WRF+HEC-HMS+HEC-RAS) have shown the most successful results in mountainous and semi-arid watersheds of Iran. Models such as Random Subspace J48, SA-ABM, and Deep Q-Learning have also shown significant performance in flood hazard zoning. Based on the results, hybrid models with 15-30% accuracy improvement have taken an effective step toward increasing the reliability of flood prediction in Iran. However, challenges such as lack of long-term data, uncertainty analysis, computational complexity, lack of standardization in model evaluation, and limited studies in southern and eastern watersheds remain as the main obstacles. Targeted investment in data infrastructure, specialized training, establishment of a national flood forecasting system based on hybrid models, and attention to uncertainty analysis are the main recommendations of this study. https://wmaj.iaid.ir/article_247417.html The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of different levels of drought stress on morphological traits of Capparis spinosa L. and to investigate the effect of biochar on increasing the plant tolerance to drought stress. This experiment was conducted as a factorial experiment in a completely randomized design with three replications in the greenhouse of the Faculty of Natural Resources, Yazd University. The experimental factors included drought stress at four levels (100, 75, 50 and 25% of field capacity), biochar at three levels (0, 1 and 2% by weight). After 10 months of drought treatment, samples were collected to measure the number of leaves, number of lateral branches, relative leaf water content, stem length, maximum root length, root volume, fresh weight of shoots and roots, dry weight of shoots and roots. The results showd that the highest number of leaves (112% increase compared to the control) and stem length (51% increase compared to the control) were observed in the treatment of 75% of the field capacity with 1% biochar, the highest fresh weight (255% increase compared to the control) and dry weight of the shoot (348% increase compared to the control) were observed in 75% of the field capacity with 2% biochar, as well as the highest fresh weight (70% increase compared to the control) and dry weight of the root (54% increase compared to the control) and the volume of the taproot (67% increase compared to the control) were observed in 25% of the field capacity with 1% biochar, and the highest taproot length (37% increase compared to the control) was observed in the 75% field capacity and without biochar. https://wmaj.iaid.ir/article_247483.html Groundwater overexploitation has become one of the major challenges to sustainable development in Iran in recent decades. Accordingly, this study investigates the effects of economic, demographic, meteorological, and climatic factors on groundwater extraction across the provinces of Iran. To this end, panel data from 30 provinces covering the period 2006–2022 were analyzed using an econometric model. Given the presence of cross-sectional dependence, heteroskedasticity, and autocorrelation in the data, the Feasible Generalized Least Squares (FGLS) method was employed to estimate the model. To account for climatic differences among provinces, the provinces of Iran were classified into four climatic zones, and the effects of these differences were incorporated into the model through climatic dummy variables. The results indicate that agricultural value added has a positive and statistically significant effect on groundwater extraction, while its squared term has a negative and statistically significant coefficient. This finding suggests the existence of a nonlinear relationship between agricultural economic activities and pressure on groundwater resources and supports the Environmental Kuznets Curve hypothesis in the context of water resources. Furthermore, population has a positive and statistically significant effect on groundwater extraction, with a coefficient of 1.753, highlighting the role of population pressure in increasing water demand. Among the meteorological variables, precipitation has a negative and statistically significant effect on groundwater extraction, with a coefficient of −0.089. The results of the climatic dummy variables also reveal regional heterogeneity in groundwater extraction patterns. Specifically, hot and arid regions exhibit greater dependence on groundwater resources, whereas humid regions impose less pressure on these resources. Overall, the findings indicate that sustainable groundwater management requires region-specific policies, improved water-use efficiency, and simultaneous consideration of economic, demographic, meteorological, and climatic factors. https://wmaj.iaid.ir/article_247881.html Water scarcity and climate change have put increasing pressure on the sensitive ecosystem of the Hyrcanian forests. The aim of this study is to assess changes in vegetation cover and water areas of the southern coast of the Caspian Sea using spectral indices and statistical analyses. Time series of four indices SAVI, EVI, MNDWI and AWEI were extracted from Landsat images (1369 to 1404) at 11 stations. The relationships between the indices were analyzed with Spearman's correlation coefficient and the trend of changes with the Mann-Kendall test (95% and 99% levels). The results showed that the correlation of SAVI with EVI is positive (station mean 0.69) and the correlation of MNDWI with AWEI is positive (mean 0.58). The negative correlation of SAVI with MNDWI (mean -0.72) indicates a proper separation of water indices from vegetation. The Mann-Kendall test showed that SAVI had a significant increasing trend (at both levels) in 9 stations (82%) and MNDWI had a significant decreasing trend at the 95% level (and 8 stations at the 99% level) in 10 stations (91%). This contrasting pattern indicates a relative restoration of vegetation cover at the same time as a significant reduction in water areas. The greatest reduction in water areas was observed at coastal stations (Bandar Anzali and Astara). Continuous monitoring using the MNDWI index and the Mann-Kendall test provides a generalizable pattern for similar studies. https://wmaj.iaid.ir/article_248413.html The water scarcity crisis in the agricultural sector, particularly in rice cultivation, necessitates the optimization of irrigation management. This study aimed to evaluate and conduct a long-term simulation of the effects of various irrigation management strategies on the grain and biological yields of a local rice cultivar (Hashemi) using the CERES-Rice model at the Rasht Rice Research Station. Meteorological, soil, and agronomic data spanning a 18-year period (2004 to 2021) were utilized. The calibration of genetic coefficients was performed using data from the continuous flooding treatment between 2004 and 2016, while independent model validation was carried out using data from 2017 to 2022. Results indicated that the model demonstrated “excellent” accuracy in simulating grain yield; the nRMSE index was 8.06% in the calibration phase and decreased to 7.49% during the validation phase. Additionally, the model’s accuracy in estimating biological yield was evaluated as “good” (with an nRMSE of approximately 13%). These results demonstrate that the CERES-Rice model provides reliable and accurate simulations of the growth and yield of the Hashemi rice cultivar under different irrigation management practices. Therefore, the model can serve as an effective decision-support tool for long-term simulation studies, evaluating alternative irrigation management scenarios, predicting crop responses to different water management strategies, and reducing the need for costly and time-consuming field experiments. Its application can facilitate evidence-based decision-making, improve irrigation planning, optimize water use, and support the development of sustainable rice production systems under increasing water scarcity and climate variability. https://wmaj.iaid.ir/article_251307.html Given the water shortage in different parts of the country, determining and evaluating the amount of virtual water and water productivity in important agricultural crops seems necessary and essential. In this study, the three indicators of virtual water (VW), physical productivity (WP), and economic productivity (NBPD) of watermelon crop in the crop year 1401 were calculated and examined in Hamedan province. The yield of the crop, the cost and income, the amount of water consumed and the irrigation requirement of watermelon were collected and calculated in the farms of the province. The results of the study showed that the highest value of the index (VW) of watermelon is 410 liters/kg in Tuyserkan county and the lowest value is 137 liters/kg in Hamedan county. Considering the area under cultivation of this crop in the counties of the province, the average value of this index for the entire province was estimated to be 184 liters/kg. Also, the highest value of the index (WP) of watermelon is 7.32 kg/m3, which is related to Hamedan county and the lowest value is 2.44 kg/m3, which is related to Tuyserkan county. Considering the area under cultivation of this crop in the counties of the province, the average value of this index for the entire province was estimated to be 5.76 kg/m3. The computational index (NBPD) in Hamedan county was the highest value equal to 364.95 thousand rials/m3 and in Bahar county the lowest value equal to -25.88 thousand rials/m3. This index was also calculated considering the area under cultivation of watermelon in the counties of the province, on average for the entire province and its value was equal to 236.17 thousand rials/m3. https://wmaj.iaid.ir/article_254243.html Water scarcity is a major challenge facing agriculture, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions, highlighting the need for innovative water-management strategies. Delayed irrigation is a scheduling strategy based on planned postponement of irrigation relative to the reference time, considering crop growth stage and sensitivity. This study reviewed national and international research on the effects of delayed irrigation on crop yield, water consumption and productivity, physiological responses, and selected environmental outcomes, while identifying factors affecting its effectiveness. A systematic review was conducted using ScienceDirect, Google Scholar, SID, Magiran, and Civilica. Following screening, more than 50 relevant articles published during the past 25 years were selected. Data on crop type, growth stage, delay intensity and duration, irrigation method, water consumption, yield, water productivity, and physiological responses were extracted and synthesized descriptively and analytically. Results showed that, unlike regulated deficit irrigation, which mainly reduces the amount of water applied, delayed irrigation focuses on irrigation timing and intervals between irrigation events. Crop responses depended strongly on crop type, growth stage, delay intensity and duration, climatic conditions, soil moisture, and complementary management practices. Under suitable conditions, delaying irrigation during less sensitive growth stages and within crop tolerance limits reduced water consumption or improved water productivity while maintaining acceptable yields. Mild stress was associated with changes in root development, stomatal regulation, and osmotic adjustment, whereas severe or prolonged delays could reduce growth and yield. Some studies also reported reduced methane emissions in rice and improvements in soil indicators. Water savings of approximately 20–30% without noticeable yield reduction and, under favorable conditions, yield increases of 10–40% with improved water productivity have been reported; however, these ranges are not universally applicable. Overall, delayed irrigation can support integrated water management and improve water productivity when appropriate timing, crop tolerance thresholds, monitoring, and complementary practices are considered.